4G Wireless Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

4G Wireless Systems - Essay Example Data packets are sent wirelessly to the satellites that help to transfer data quickly. This change has brought about much relief for the general public as now communication can be easier and much faster and not to mention it has become a lot less tedious. However, the fast paced changes in the technological world make it a lot harder for various companies and industries to keep up. One day a new product is introduced and the next day the team sits down to chalk out the plans to make the product better. A perfect example would be Apple’s effort to introduce new and improved versions of the iPhone and then there is the competition that makes companies run faster and faster. Using the last example of Apple it is now common knowledge that Google’s Android is becoming the competition to the iPhone. In the same manner, wireless systems have evolved from time to time and continue to do so.The wireless communication systems have been defined by giving then designations with reg ards to generations. The first generation was introduced in the early 1980s and made use of analog frequency modulation and were more or less used for the purpose of voice communication. It was not much later in the late 1980s that the second generation of wireless system technology made its way in the market was once again focused on voice communicationÃ'Ž Later, instead of a third generation technology, there was a midway between the second and third generation know as 2.5 generation.  

The Killing of Jordanian Pilot Moaz Kasasbeh Essay

The Killing of Jordanian Pilot Moaz Kasasbeh - Essay Example In his article in the Los Angeles Times, Miller provides an objective headline that stamps his views over the issue. â€Å"Will Islamic State pay for killing a Jordanian pilot?† is an objective headline that illustrates the writers opinion for revenge or stern action in response to the inhumane act (Miller). On the other hand, Woodward depicts an outright thought and approach to solving the challenge. The headline â€Å"Patience is better than revenge† describes the writer’s view that there exists a peaceful approach to dealing with the situation (Woodward 1). Woodward draws his sentiments from the report by Mitchell Prothero about the killing. He then explains the chronological events as they happened after the assassination. In addition, he gives his perspectives about Jordan’s rejoinder of prisoner’s execution and concludes that it is not an appropriate move. To justify his facts that revenge is not right, Woodward compares the prevailing situation to the Quran teachings of peace and love. Conversely, Miller relates the potential outcomes of the ISIS acts to past events. Notably, he points out the Arab Spring and events triggered World War I. Both insights show that the writers are well equipped with historical facts and data about conflicts. Nonetheless, they provide alternative approaches to handling the situation. Woodward message to the readers comprises of importance of peace and collaboration to solving world problems. He also stamps his peaceful approach to solving conflicts by teaching his readers the spiritual aspect of conflict resolution. On the other hand, Miller to an extent wants the readers to pressurize the state to seek revenge. He gives an analysis of the on-going operations and points out areas of faults. In doing this, he is informing the readers about the seriousness or lack of focus on the side of the federal government and other concerned states. For example, he explains

Population Pyramids-Session Long Project Assignment

Population Pyramids-Session Long Project - Assignment Example ment on social and economic values as well as introduction of some policies to regulate the population in Germany shaped its population in a different direction (Caselli, Vallin, and Wunsch, 2006). For instance, the Germany’s May 9, 2011 population census indicated that Germany has 80,219,695 persons. This population made Germany the 16th most populous nation globally. Despite this population, Germany’s population on the pyramid data presentation shows data Germany has a zero or declining population growth that is defined mainly by aging population and a smaller cohort of youths. The changing population trend with the number of youths being smaller than aged person is attributed by many factors in Germany including education, improved health care, social elements, and government policies. It is noted that in Germany, most of the educated persons tend to have lower number of children than then lowly educated persons. This has led to the shifting of fertility being high among the elderly women (considered to have achieved low education levels) compared to the youthful women who are considered to be highly educated (Micklin and Poston, 2006). Additionally, improved healthcare in Germany has since provided adequate and efficient healthcare system to the citizens, thereby reducing death rate thereby extending or elongating life span of persons within the country. This explains why there more elderly persons in Germany. The economic status of citizen and wealth generation is also another factor that contributes to the population trend in Germany (Hobbs and Hobbs, 2009). Parents are the sole sources of finances for the families; thus, the lower the number of children the effective and sustainable such families are; hence, the families tend to smaller for economic effectiveness and efficiency. In 5 or and 20 years to come, Germany is expected to have negative population growth rate. Notably, this will follow the trend between 1982 and 1985 when the population of this

How to Write a Good Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

How to Write a Good Paper - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that when writing a good research paper, you, as the author, must first do the research. You need to consider the topic that you want to discuss and decide your stance on that topic. Do you agree or disagree with what it is saying? This is important to know because you are trying to convince your audience of your position by providing them with this paper. The research will allow you to back up your argument, letting your audience see the evidence you have to support your claim. Once you have your resources and the basis of your paper, it is best to write an outline. This will allow you to stay on track when writing your paper and to keep your ideas and facts organized. It will also help you to flesh out your ideas even more, in the case you want to dwell a bit more on certain aspects of your argument. A good thesis statement states quite clearly the purpose of the paper. In one or two sentences, you prepare your audience for what the topic of your paper is; this is what will grasp their attention, letting them know upfront if the paper is something that would interest them. The thesis statement sets up the rest of the paper, whether it is presenting an argument, a claim, or a stance that you take on a certain subject. It acts like "a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper." Following your thesis statement, you should briefly sum up the rest of your paper in a paragraph.

The Reading Crisis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Reading Crisis - Essay Example This decline in the mastery of reading skills is especially prevalent in boys. The Department of Education has reported that, for the past 30 years, boys have been scoring lower and lower on reading tests and consistently score lower than girls in this area ("Pearson Toolkit"). The impact of poor reading skills is far reaching and long lasting. According to an article entitled â€Å"Early Literacy Development,† students with poor reading skills were linked to â€Å"poverty, crime, and unemployment† (National Dropout Prevention Center/Network). Additionally, in a study conducted by the American Educational Research Association, it was found that â€Å"a student who can’t read on grade level by 3rd grade is four times less likely to graduate by age 19 than a child who does read proficiently by that time† (Sparks). Those with strong proficiency in reading tend to experience greater financial and employment success. There are several different possibilities as to what is causing students to struggle with mastering reading skills. The biggest reason has to do with teaching strategies. According to the article entitled â€Å"Boys and Reading,† boys need a larger amount of instruction when it comes to reading as literacy skills tend to develop at a slower rate for boys than for girls ("Pearson Toolkit"). ... ching reading skills in an effective manner, according to the article entitled â€Å"Early Literacy Development.† Some of these tactics include â€Å"phonics instruction, teacher read-alouds, a book-rich literate environment, a variety of reading and writing activities, shared reading, and student’s reading aloud to others† (National Dropout Prevention Center/Network). In a study entitled â€Å"Increasing Reading Skills in Rural Areas: An Analysis of Three School Districts,† it was determined that teachers need better training and support in order to efficiently teach reading curriculum and skills to their students. The research concluded that achieving mastery of reading skills results in â€Å"exposure to much greater volume of material, and thus also produces a strikingly greater accumulation of vocabulary, language skills, and general knowledge† (Stockard). The study also concluded that the most effective type of instructions when it came to rea ding was â€Å"systematic and explicit instruction.†(Stockard). This type of instruction basically creates an environment where teachers do not leave room for confusion as to what the lesson or goal of the lesson is. Such a curriculum includes â€Å"clear instructional targets, modeling, guided and independent practice with corrections, and assessments embedded within the instruction†(Stockard). In order to implement this type of change, it is imperative that teachers receive training and support. In this particular study, the support was given to the teacher by way of the National Institute for Direct Instruction. An â€Å"Implementation Manager† visited the school and actively observed the teacher’s current method of reading instruction(Stockard). After noting the problem areas, the Implementation Manager spent time coaching

Use and develop systems that promote communication Essay Example for Free

Use and develop systems that promote communication Essay Learning outcome 1: Be able to address the range of communication requirements in own role. 1.1 Review the range of groups and individuals whose communication needs must be addressed in own job role. Common groups and individuals that are present in the workplace that may have communication support needs could include: Resident’s with DEMENTIA Dementia is a progressive illness that over time will affect a persons ability to remember and understand basic everyday facts, such as names, dates and places. Dementia will gradually affect the way the person communicates. Their ability to present rational ideas and to reason clearly will change. Resident’s suffered from STROKE A stroke is an injury to the brain. The brain controls everything we do including everything we interpret and understand. A stroke can cause problems with communicating if there is damage to the parts of the brain responsible for language. These functions are controlled by the left side of the brain in most people. As the brain controls the opposite side of our body, many people who have communication problems after stroke also have weakness or paralysis on the right side of their body. Stroke can also cause communication problems if muscles of the face, tongue or throat are affected. It may result into communication problems like aphasia/dysphasia (difficulty in speaking), dysarthria (happens when a stroke causes weakness of the muscles you use to speak), and dyspraxia (condition that affects movement and co-ordination. Dyspraxia of speech happens when you cannot move muscles in the correct order and sequence to make the sounds needed for clear speech). Read more: Essay About Effectiveness of Different Communication Systems 1.2 Explain how to support effective communication within own job role. To the staff: Ask people how they prefer to be addressed and respect their wishes. Give people information about the service in advance and in a suitable format Dont assume you know what people want because of their culture, ability or any other factor – always ask. Ensure people are offered time to talk, and a chance to voice any concerns or simply have a chat. If a person using the service does not speak English, translation services should be provided in  the short term and culturally appropriate services provided in the long term. Staff should have acceptable levels of both spoken and written English. Overseas staff should understand the cultural needs and communication requirements of the people they are caring for. Staff should be properly trained to communicate with people who have cognitive or communication difficulties. Schedules should include enough time for staff to properly hand over information between shifts. Involve people in the production of information resources to ensure the information is clear and answers the right questions Provide information material in an accessible format (in large print or on DVD, for example) and wherever possible, provide it in advance. Find ways to get the views of people using the service (for example, through residentsÊ ¼ meetings) and respect individuals’ contributions by acting on their ideas and suggestions. 1.3 Analyse the barriers and challenges to communication within own job role. Barriers in effective communication can become the hurdle in progress of professional life as well as in the personal life. There are various points where the message is misinterpreted in which some are as follows: Material or Physical Barrier: This is the main hurdle or barrier in effective communication at workplace. This barrier in the company comprises large working area which is physically estranged from each other. Other things due to which physical barrier rises may be the organizational environment or noise coming from back. Various things can be included in physical barrier like large working place or working in one section which is physically separate from each other, closed office doors, separate place for people of different rank etc. These points can be concluded in physical barriers to effective communication: Environmental cause: Too much humidity in atmosphere, light in excess, lofty temperature or bad ventilation are some of the environmental barriers in effective communication. Challenging Stimulus: If there is loud music or noise in the background and there is distance between sender and receiver then it becomes very difficult to send the correct message by the sender to the receiver. Subjective strain: Due to bad health, too much mental stress, lack of proper sleep or consumption of medicines, the receiver can never understand the message appropriately. Linguistic Barrier: Different language and vocabulary is another barrier in communication. Language is vague in nature and its words are symbols which hardly represent only one meaning. The meanings of these symbols or words are understood by the sender and receiver in their own way which can result in misinterpretation. If communicator uses difficult or inappropriate words or if message is not explained in proper manner then it can result in misinterpretation. It is the language only that plays vital role in every field so it should be kept in mind that proper language and words are used. In today’s world if you send your message to another person in his language then it will be more effective and in this way the communication can be made effectively. Cultural Barrier: You will find diverse culture barrier to effective communication in this world. This communication barrier arise when two people of any organization belongs to different culture, place or religion. There are many other factors of cultural barrier like age, social position, mental difference or thinking behavior, economic status, political views, values and rules, ethics or standards, motives and priorities. The communication done without mixing any culture will not miss its meaning, but once a culture is mixed up with the communication then it may lose its exact meaning. Emotional barrier: Every person takes the situations and affair in his own way as everyone differs from each other. Many times thoughts of the person become strong base for communication. There are many emotions which can be the cause of effective communication barrier. Examples include anger, fear, or hostility. Apart from these some barriers to effective communication are mentioned below: Sudden reactions: Many times while communicating, a listener makes comment or criticizes the message sender without waiting for the sentence to be completed. So it’s very necessary to be keep patience and speak once the communicator completes his speech. Unfair assumptions: Never make wrong assumptions of the message as it creates great confusion. For example, you incorrectly assumed that your subordinate have understood the thing you have explained regarding any issue. Terror: This emotion makes the person to think slowly. He becomes narrow minded. This makes the negative impact on effective communication skill. Person becomes defensive: Man who cannot communicate effectively just  tries to justify himself every time because he thinks that accepting the mistake means degradation. This kind of attitude is a great obstacle in the effective communication. Being overconfident about self-knowledge: There are number of persons existing in this world that are overconfident about themselves that they have enough knowledge about any subject. But when you talk to such people, you will discover that they don’t have enough knowledge nor such people accept that they can be wrong. This is another hurdle in effective communication. 1.4 Implement a strategy to overcome communication barriers. In our care practice we have a significant number of service users who have communication difficulties due to dementia and post-stroke. The following strategies are identified in order to have an effective communication and be able to understand and meet their needs. 1. Residents with dementia. speaking clearly and slowly, using short sentences  making eye contact with the person when theyre talking, asking questions or having other conversations giving them time to respond, because they may feel pressured if you try to speed up their answers encouraging them to join in conversations with others where possible letting them speak for themselves during discussions about their welfare or health issues, as they may not speak up for themselves in other situations trying not patronise them, or ridiculing what they say acknowledging what they have said, even if they dont answer your question, or what they say seems out of context – show that youve heard them and encourage them to say more about their answer giving them simple choices – avoid creating complicated choices for them using other ways to communicate – such as rephrasing questions because they cant answer in the way they used to 2. Residents suffered from stroke with communication problems. Keep your own language clear and simple. Speak in a normal tone of voice. Don’t rush the conversation. Give the person time to take in what you say and  to respond. Assume the person can hear and understand well, in spite of any difficulties responding, unless you learn otherwise. Stick to one topic at a time using short sentences. For example, instead of saying, â€Å"Your wife called and she will be here at 4pm to pick you up and take you home†, say: â€Å"Your wife called.† (pause) â€Å"She will be here at 4pm.† (pause) â€Å"You can go home then.† Use all forms of communication to help reinforce what you are saying, such as clear gestures, drawing, communication aids. Use adult language and don’t â€Å"talk down† to the person with aphasia. Even if someone understands little or nothing, remember they are not a child. Don’t interrupt them. Watch out for when they are finished, or when they are looking for help. Ask if your help is needed before giving it. If it helps them to remember things, mak e use of a diary, calendar or photos. Lists of words or options to select from can help. If they can’t think of a word, ask how it is spelt. Write down the first letter or syllable as a prompt. Write down key words with a marker pen. Write clearly in lower case and don’t underline. Keep the lists of words to refer back to. If they prefer, guess the word they can’t find and ask if it’s correct. If they are keen to find the right word, give them more time to respond, or guess their meaning and check out if you’re correct. Otherwise, if they prefer and you’ve understood the message, just carry on the conversation. If easier for them, establish the general topic of their message by asking careful questions that only require a ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answer. Give them plenty of time to respond. Don’t ask too many questions too quickly, as they may feel overwhelmed and become frustrated. 1.5 Use different means of communication to meet different needs. Members of the health care staff use different ways of communication in order to meet the needs and preferences of the service users. Staff should be familiar with the difficulties of communication that a certain resident may have in consideration to their medical condition. They used verbal and non-verbal communication that varies depending on the individual’s needs and difficulties. Below are examples of different ways of communication to meet the different needs of clients. Verbal communication uses words to present ideas, thoughts and feelings. Good verbal communication is the ability to both explain and present your ideas clearly through the spoken word, and to  listen carefully to other people. This will involve using a variety of approaches and styles appropriate to the client you are addressing. Non-verbal communication This refers to the messages we send out to express ideas and opinions without talking. This might be through the use of body language, facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice, touch or contact, signs, symbols, pictures, objects and other visual aids. It is very important to be able to recognise what a person’s body language is saying, especially when as a health or social care worker you are dealing with someone who is in pain, worried or upset. You must also be able to understand the messages you send with your own body when working with other people. Written communication -This is central to the work of any person providing a service in a health and social care environment when keeping records and in writing reports. Different types of communication need different styles of writing but all require literacy skills. A more formal style of writing is needed when recording information about a patient. Technological aids- Technology is moving so quickly now that we have many electronic aids to help us communicate. For example, we have computers on which we can record, store and communicate information very quickly and efficiently over long distances. Learning outcome 2: Be able to improve communication systems and practices that support positive outcomes for individuals. 2.1 Monitor the effectiveness of communication systems and practices. To the staff – Two monthly supervisions are being practice in our workplace in order to address the needs and concerns of the members of the health care staff. Work schedules, preferences, relationship with other staff and continuing professional development (trainings, study days, etc) are some of the topics being discussed during supervisions. Meeting are also held on a regular basis. To the service users – Part of the care plan of each client is their communication needs. Changes or difficulties in communication are being monitored or evaluated monthly. This file is accessible to members of the health care staff to familiarize themselves to the mode of communication effective to a particular resident. To families of service users – regular meetings with families of residents is being practiced. Management of the health care staff are approachable to address their needs or concerns with  regards to the care being provided to their family member. 2.2 Evaluate the effectiveness of existing communication systems and practices 2.3 Propose improvements to communication systems and practices to address any shortcomings Evaluation of existing communication system is very important in order to meet the needs of the service users, maintain the high morale of the staff and satisfy the relatives of the residents. The following are the existing communication systems and practices in my workplace. Communication System Scores: 1-5 (1=very poor; 2=poor; 3=adequate; 4=good; 5=very good) Staff Handover (4) – Staff should be provided with adequate information to changes happened to a particular resident in a particular shift. Staff Supervision (4) – Management should not take it personally when providing constructive criticisms. Care plan recording (4) – staff should ensure that files are updated on a regular basis. All staff should be familiarise to the different needs of each resident. Complaints Procedure (4) – Ensure that all service users and family members are aware of the procedure in making a complaint. Call Bell System (4) – Service users to differentiate the normal call button from the emergency button. Telephone Log (4) – Staff should be trained in confidentiality regarding sharing of patient’s information. 2.4 Lead the implementation of revised communication systems and practices Learning outcome 3: Be able to improve communication systems to support partnership working. 3.1 Use communication systems to promote partnership working. 3.2 Compare the effectiveness of different communication systems for partnership working. 3.3 Propose improvements to communication systems for partnership working. In a Nursing Home you communicate with different agencies and departments of the health care in order to meet the optimum level of care that the services users deserved. Liaise with GP’s, dietician, Occupational Therapist, Pharmacist, Clinics and other members of the health care setting contributes in the effectiveness of communication for partnership working. These are the list of problems that are identified with the current system and proposed improvements in order for partnership working to be effective. GP Visits –  Doctors should trust the decision making of healthcare staff because they are more familiar with the behaviour and changes of service users. Medication Ordering – Pharmacists should delete the medications that were stopped from the repeat prescriptions in order to prevent medication errors. Electronic ordering should be considered to Nursing Homes in order to save time and effort. Referral to dieticians, podiatrist, SALT and OT – Preferably nurses should directly refer to these departments in order to save time and decrease the actual waiting time for visits of service users. Learning outcome 4: Be able to use systems for effective information management 4.1 Explain legal and ethical tensions between maintaining confidentiality and sharing information. Confidentiality is an important value within the healthcare setting for clients, their families and employees. Important confidentiality issues are trust and client safety. Personal and private information such as health diagnosis, feelings, emotions and financial status must be restricted to people who have an accepted need to know. NMC [online] 2002 confirms that confidentiality is the respect for the privacy of any information about a client/patient. The Value Base ( a system of values to guide the care profession) states that confidentiality of records and information should be discussed with clients if possible, however some information can be kept from a client if it were to cause them to self-harm (physically or mentally). If clients/patients know that personal details and conversations are private it will enable them to feel safe and that trust is present. Clients/patients should be told that other health professionals involved in the care of them have a need to know of some confidential issues to enable better recovery for themselves. It sets rules for and applies to personal information, paper records and computer held records. It covers data held in the respect of any individual including financial and credit information, membership of organisation, medical, health and social services records. Nolan Y, (2001). Good record keeping helps to protect patients and clients by promoting: High standards of clinical care and continuity of care Better communication between health care professionals regarding information of clients/patients. An accurate account of treatment, care planning and delivery. Confidentiality arises when service uses keep information about themselves off the record and determine h ow recorded information about themselves is shared and used. Users of services can control information about themselves by refusing to disclose it at all and this is the most obvious way to do so. Whatever service it is, there will be always a minimum amount of information which the client has to disclose as a condition for receiving the service, hence would- be users of services dont have a real choice about keeping information. However confidentiality policies are important in carework. Most records in health and care are made with a view to the information being shared. This is so that continuity of care is not vulnerable to individual practitioners becoming sick, going on holiday or changing their jobs. Records are an important facility for co-ordinating care. However sharing the information in records raises issues about whom the information should be shared with, what they may or may not do with, and what rights clients have to know how and with whom information about themselves is likely to be shared. The code: Standards of conduct, performance and ethics for nurses and midwives’ (2008) states: You must respect peoples right to confidentiality. You must ensure people are informed about how and why information is shared by those who will be providing their care. You must disclose information if you believe someone may be at risk of harm, in line with the law of the country in which you are practising. Confidentiality is a duty of confidence arises when one person discloses information to another in circumstances where it is reasonable to expect that the information will be held in confidence. This duty of confidence is derived from: common law – the decisions of the Courts statute law which is passed by Parliament. Confidentiality is a fundamental part of professional practice that protects human rights. This is identified in Article 8 (Right to respect for private and family life) of the European Convention of Human Rights which states: Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the  prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others. The common law of confidentiality reflects that people have a right to expect that information given to a nurse or midwife is only used for the purpose for which it was given and will not be disclosed without permission. This covers situations where information is disclosed directly to the nurse or midwife and also to information that the nurse or midwife obtains from others. One aspect of privacy is that individuals have the right to control access to their own personal health information. It is not acceptable for nurses and midwives to: discuss matters related to the people in their care outside the clinical setting discuss a case with colleagues in public where they may be overheard leave records unattended where they may be read by unauthorised persons. Legislation All nurses and midwives need to be aware of the following pieces of legislation relating to confidentiality: The Data Protection Act 1998 This Act governs the processing of information that identifies living individuals. Processing includes holding, obtaining, recording, using and disclosing of information and the Act applies to all forms of media, including paper and electronic. The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 Regulates the provision of new reproductive technology services and places a statutory ban upon the disclosure of information concerning gamete donors and people receiving treatment under the Act. Unauthorised disclosure of such information by healthcare professionals and others has been made a criminal offence. The National Health Service Venereal Disease Regulations (SI 1974 No.29) This states that health authorities should take all necessary steps to ensure that identifiable information relating to persons being treated for sexually transmitted diseases s hould not be disclosed. The Mental Capacity Act (2005) This provides a legal framework to empower and protect people who may lack capacity to make some decisions for themselves. The assessor of an â€Å"individual’s capacity to make a decision will usually be the person who is directly concerned with the individual at the time the decision needs to be made† this means that different health and social care workers will be involved in different capacity decisions at different times.  The Freedom of Information Act 2000 and Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002 These Acts grant people rights of access to information that is not covered by the Data Protection Act 1998, e.g. information which does not contain a person’s identifiable details. The Computer Misuse Act 1990 This Act secures computer programmes and data against unauthorised access or alteration. Authorised users have permission to use certain programmes and data. If the users go beyond what is permitted, this is a crimi nal offence. Disclosure Disclosure means the giving of information. Disclosure is only lawful and ethical if the individual has given consent to the information being passed on. Such consent must be freely and fully given. Consent to disclosure of confidential information may be: Explicit consent is obtained when the person in the care of a nurse or midwife agrees to disclosure having been informed of the reason for that disclosure and with whom the information may or will be shared. Explicit consent can be written or spoken. Implied consent is obtained when it is assumed that the person in the care of a nurse or midwife understands that their information may be shared within the healthcare team. Nurses and midwives should make the people in their care aware of this routine sharing of information, and clearly record any objections. Disclosure without consent The term ‘public interest’ describes the exceptional circumstances that justify overruling the right of an individual to confidentiality in order to serve a broader social concern. Under common law, staff are permitted to disclose personal information in order to prevent and support detection, investigation and punishment of serious crime and/or to prevent abuse or serious harm to others. Each case must be judged on its merits. Examples could include disclosing information in relation to crimes against the person e.g. rape, child abuse, murder, kidnapping, or as a result of injuries sustained from knife or gun shot wounds. These decisions are complex and must take account of both the public interest in ensuring confidentiality against the public interest in disclosure. Disclosures should be proportionate and limited to relevant details.Nurses and midwives should be aware that it may be necessary to justify disclosures to the courts or to the N ursing Midwifery Council and must keep a clear record of the decision making process and advice sought. Courts tend to require disclosure in the public interest where the information concerns misconduct, illegality and gross immorality. Disclosure to third parties This is where information is shared with other people and/or organisations not directly involved in a person’s care. Nurses and midwives must ensure that the people in their care are aware that information about them may be disclosed to third parties involved in their care. People in the care of a nurse or midwife generally have a right to object to the use and disclosure of confidential information. They need to be made aware of this right and understand its implications. Information that can identify individual people in the care of a nurse or midwife must not be used or disclosed for purposes other than healthcare without the individuals’ explicit consent, some other legal basis, or where there is a wider public interest. Information Sharing Protocols These are documented rules and procedures for the disclosure and use of patient information between two or more organisations or agencies, in relation to security, confidentiality and data destruction. All organisations should have these in place and nurses and midwives should follow any established information sharing protocols. Confidentiality after death The duty of confidentiality does continue after death of an individual to whom that duty is owed. Information disclosure to the police In English law there is no obligation placed upon any citizen to answer questions put to them by the police. However, there are some exceptional situations in which disclosure is required by statute. These include: the duty to report notifiable diseases in accordance with the Public Health Act 1984 duty to inform the Police, when asked, of the name and address of drivers who are allegedly guilty of an offence contrary to the Road Traffic Act 1998 the duty not to wit hhold information relating to the commission of acts of terrorism contrary to the Terrorism Act 2000 the duty to report relevant infectious diseases in accordance with the Public Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations 1998. The Police and Criminal Evidence Act (1984) This Act allows nurses and midwives to pass on information to the police if they believe that someone may be seriously harmed or death may occur if the police are not informed. Before any disclosure is made nurses and midwives should always discuss the matter fully with other professional colleagues and, if appropriate consult the NMC or their professional body or trade union. It is important that  nurses and midwives are aware of their organisational policies and how to implement them. Wherever possible the issue of disclosure should be discussed with the individual concerned and consent sought. If disclosure takes place without the person’s consent they should be told of the decision to disclose and a clear record of the discussion and decision should be made as stated above. 4.2 Analyse the essential features of information-sharing agreements within the and between organisations. These are the usual subjects that are applicable in sharing information within and between organizations: Complaint Procedure – Service users and relatives are informed regarding the proper procedure in filing a complaint. This guideline is posted and accessible in the nursing home. Infectious Disease The care home should produce a written policy that details the roles and responsibilities of the staff during an outbreak of communicable disease or episode of infection. The plan should include details of the roles and responsibilities of senior personnel as follows. The owner of a home is responsible under health and safety legislation for maintaining an environment which is safe for residents, visitors and staff alike. Suitable arrangements and procedures for control of infection would form part of the health and safety requirements. The registered manager should have 24-hour access to advice on infection prevention and control from a suitably qualified and competent individual. It is good practice for the registered manager to produce an annual report on the systems in place for the prevention and control of infection and how these are monitored. The report should contain information on incidents and outbreaks of infection, risk assessment, training and education of staff, and infection control audit and the actions that have been taken to rectify any problems. The person in charge should ensure that appropriate infection control policies and procedures exist, are readily available, are understood by all members of staff and are used within the home. Health and Safety We complete all of the necessary risk assessments and procedures (Fire, COSHH, Premises, Administration of Medicines, Clinical Waste Disposal Handling, Food-Personal Hygiene, Infection Control, Use of Stairs, Use of Wheelchairs, Use of Bathrooms, Maintenance of Showers, Lone Working, Manual Handling, Expectant Mother, Office Safety, Passenger Lifts and many more). We write  Health and Safety policies, review and provide staff training (Specialist Training and Safety Training). Medical Records The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act produced the Standards for Privacy of Individually Identifiable Health Information rule which requires health care providers to make reasonable efforts to use, disclose, and request only the minimum amount of protected health information needed to accomplish the intended purpose for which the information is being used, disclosed, or requested. This means the authorized entity requesting the information may not use, disclose, or request the entire medical record for a particular reason unless it can justify the whole record as the amount of information reasonably needed for that purpose. 4.3 Demonstrate use of information management systems that meet legal and ethical requirements.

Light Trapping Properties of Solar Cells

Light Trapping Properties of Solar Cells Abstract In this paper, we have investigated the light trapping properties of solar cells based on one-dimensional photonic crystal (1DPC) by using finite difference time domain (FDTD) method. Light trapping is essential for thin film solar cells due to the limited absorption in long wavelength range. Here, we used different types of solar cell structures and to explore their photonic ray theories (electric field propagation) and numerical simulations. The one-dimensional thin film solar cell consists of distributed Bragg’s reflector (DBR), Metal back reflector, grating and anti-reflection coating (ARC). The influence of the grating period and depth, the optimal path length has to be increased. These numerical simulations indicate that this combined photonic structure is capable of improving the external quantum efficiency and their absorption. As well as the relative enhancement increased up-to 60% for thin film silicon solar cells. We further to investigate high efficiency of thin fi lm solar cell using different structure. Index terms: Finite difference time domain (FDTD), distributed Bragg’s reflector (DBR), the grating, metal reflector, anti-reflection coating (ARC) and relative enhancement factor. Introduction The scientific community is intensively working to achieve high efficiency thin film solar cells based on silicon. Among the various energy sources, solar energy is well considered to be very promising and achieved wide applications for space and global power generation. The silicon based thin films are cheaper and easy fabrication due to well developed silicon technology. The Silicon based thin films have been the choice as active materials for solar cells, such as crystalline silicon (c-Si), amorphous silicon (a-Si), micro crystalline silicon (ÃŽ ¼c-Si) and so on [1]. The efficiency of silicon thin film solar cell (TFSC) is low due to their weak absorption in longer wavelength range. Thus the light trapping mechanism for thin film silicon solar cell becomes a vital role to improve the conversion efficiency. The crystalline silicon solar cells integrated with the DBR, metal reflector, ARC and grating. Therefore, the incident light is expected to be partially absorbed in the active l ayer of crystalline silicon (c-Si), after the support through the front anti-reflection coating layer (Si3N4) and the back reflector of aluminum (Al) or dielectric (DBR) layers. We are realized that incident light is scattered into the DBR due to the periodic grating and reflected back at the bottom interface. Therefore the way of light trapping in this design is different from usual reflectors based on metals or photonic crystals [2, 3]. In this paper, we will focus on strongly corrugated photonic crystal absorbers made up of a-Si and SiO2 layers are periodically patterned. Finally, the optical presentation of the structure will be indicated by their integrated absorption, the absorbed spectral range between 300-1200nm. This paper deals with the modeling and designing of solar cells using FDTD method. Figure 1 The schematic diagram of the solar cell structure Designing Approach Finite difference time domain (FDTD) method as a sophisticated computational method used to model advanced devices. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of solar cell composed of anti-reflection coating (ARC), diffraction grating and photonic crystals also known as distributed Bragg’s reflector. The distributed Bragg’s reflector (DBR) consists of alternate layers of amorphous Si (a-Si) and silicon-di-oxide (SiO2) with their refractive index 3.6 and 1.45 and thickness 56nm, 138nm respectively. The thickness of the each layer is determined by the quarter wave principle (t = ÃŽ »C /4n), where, n-is the refractive index and ÃŽ »C is the center wavelength of photonic band gap. On top of the DBR, diffraction grating is embedded which is made of a-Si and SiO2, with duty cycle (Gdc=0.5ÃŽ ¼m), period (Gp=0.6ÃŽ ¼m) and thickness (Tg=0.1ÃŽ ¼m).The anti-reflection coating (ARC) layer is made of silicon nitrate (Si3N4) and their thickness 0.07ÃŽ ¼m. Result and Discussion The wave propagation designed solar cell is shown in figure 2. We have used commercial available Full WAVE tool supplied by RSoft. We can see light interaction into the device, when one light is made incident on the solar cell. The shorter wavelength is absorbed by the active region while longer wavelength moves toward bottom layer. The grating interaction gives scattering and diffraction of light where as DBR reflects remaining light. This mechanism finally force the light waves into active region. We have designed and analyzed four different structures of solar cells to understand the light trapping mechanism. Figure 2 Schematic diagrams of solar cell structure and their electric field distribution Figure 3 (a) show absorption of solar cells in accordance to wavelength from 300 to 1200nm. To compare the performance of designed devices we have designed a planer solar cell which mainly consists of anti-reflection coating of silicon nitride. The solar cell absorption of DBR and ARC based solar cell is found to be improved than reference solar cell. However, DBR, ARC and GRA based solar cells show distinct absorption as comparisons to cell C1 and C3. We can see added absorption peak in the red and infrared part of solar spectrum for the case of cell 2. Figure 3 Absorption (a) and Quantum efficiency (b) of designed four solar cells Figure 3b shows Quantum efficiency of different types of thin film Silicon solar cells. The solar cell (C2) composed of DBR, ARC and GR Solar cell C2 shows enhanced quantum efficiency then solar cells C1 and C3. The solar cell C2 peaks between 600 and 1160nm range, which indicates the efficient trapping of light. However, reference cell has the less quantum efficiency show sharp as compare to cells C1 and C3. The overall quantum efficiency is found to be increased between the 700 to 1160nm wavelength range. The quantum efficiency clearly exposes the light absorption enhancement of the light trapping structure in certain wavelength range only. The different solar cell structure shows the highest performances and their relative efficiency was achieved up to 60%, it is compared to the reference cell. Figure 4 J-V characteristics for solar cells with different back structures The figure 4 shows the short circuit current versus voltage characteristics of four designed solar cells. The highest short circuit current can be absorbed for cell C2, C3 and C1 respectively. The short circuit current enhancement factors are 21mA/cm2, 53.8mA/cm2 and 60.5mA/cm2. The overall short circuit current of DBR with grating structure got more enhancements (~60%). Table-I shows the short circuit current, open circuit Voltage, relative enhancement factor and cell efficiency of different solar cell structures. Table-1 The comparison of optical characteristics of C-Si solar cell with different back structures with reference structure All the back structures are improved the cell efficiencies as shown in table I. The open circuit voltage (VOC= 0.7V) and the fill factor (FF=84.5%) are similar to all the structures. The back reflectors showing significant enhancement as evidenced by figure 3. Figure 5 The efficiency enhancement of c-Si solar cells with different structures The characteristic of different back reflector with active region and their enhanced efficiency as shown in figure 5. The combination of periodic grating and DBR structure indicates 60% enhancement, while aluminum with grating structure indicates 53.4% enhancement, it is compared to bare silicon or without any reflector on the back surface. It is simulated as a compare to the perfect periodic cell structure. Conclusion In conclusion, we proposed new photonic light trapping structure and the numerical simulations indicate that this combined photonic structure is capable of improving the cell efficiency by more than 55% for thin film silicon solar cell structure. We investigated the mechanism for an efficient light trapping structure for thin film solar cells using FDTD method. At wavelength range between 400 to 1200nm, we got stronger absorption peaks for silicon with metal and grating. The efficiency also increased, it is much more considerable. These results are providing a path to achieve low cost and strong efficiency enhancement for thin film silicon solar cell. Integrated of self assembled alumina and DBR for more light trapping in silicon photo voltaic (PV) devices. The high efficiency solar cell will be greatly more evident for smaller cell thickness and improved their absorption. Further, we will get more cell efficiency using metal nano sphere and texture the grating structure. Reference [1] L.Zhao, Y.H.Zuo, C.L.Zhou, H.L.Li, H.W. Diao and W.J.Wang, A highly efficient light trapping structure for thin film silicon solar cells, Solar energy 84 (2010) 110-115. [2] Krc. J, Zeman, M, Luxembourg, SL Topic, M.Modulated photonic-crystal structures as broad band back reflectors in thin-film solar cells.Applied Physics Letters, (2009), 94(15), 153501-153501-3. [3] Lord RayleighSec. R. S. On the maintenance of vibrations by forces of double frequency, and on the propagation of waves through a medium endowed with a periodic structure, Vol. 24, issue 147, (1887), 145-159. [4] A. Taflove, S.C. Hagness, Computational Electrodynamics, 2nd ed., Artech House, Norwood, MA, 2000. [5] A.F. Oskooi, D.Roundy, M. Ibanescu, P.Bermel, J. D. Joannpoulos, S.G. Johnson, Computer Physics Communications 181 (2010) 687. [6] Xing sheng, steven G. Johnson, Lirong Z. Broderick, Jurgen Michel and Lionel C. Kimerling, Integrated photonic structures for light trapping in thin film Si solar cells, Applied Physics Letters 100 (2012), 111110. [7] L.Zeng, Y.Yi, C.Hong, J.Liu, N.Feng, X.Duan and L.C. Kimerling, Efficiency enhancement in Si solar cells by textured photonic crystal back reflector, Applied Physics Letters 89 (2006), 111111.